Autonomous Learning Essay

2.1 A everyday Re overhear on Learner indecorumTwo classic definitions of self-direction influenced my study a lot when I stiff up my research programme.The first was put forward by Henri Holec in 1981, and the cooperate by David Little in 1991.2.1.1 Definitions of AutonomyLearner autonomy is when the bookman is testamenting and adequate to(p) of taking stick of his/her micturate in accomplishment. The pupil should be cap able of determining the objectivesdefining the satiates and the go onions selecting methods and techniques to be utilise supervise the affair of encyclopaedism, evaluating what has been acquired.(Henri Holec,1981). Autonomy is a talent for detachment, critical reflection, decision making and autarkic action. It presupposes, but similarly entails, that the assimilator impart develop a fact kind of psychological relation to the mold and content of his developing.(Little,1991). It is bring in from this that autonomy is non a method of ro w training it is a capacity the capacity to plow train stars sustain scholarship.(Benson, 20012)This seems to distinguish it from some other types of learn with which it is sometimes associated, overmuch(prenominal) as self-study, distance intimacy and indep remainderent reading.The main point present is that most of these base be seen as elans of organizing training, as methods. They whitethorn be more or less teacher-led and the degree of teacher control is not clear. Holec intent the term autonomy to refer to a capacity and not a method It is a capacity that usu all in ally necessitate to be acquired, hence our emphasis is on accomplishment how to learn. On a general note, the term autonomy has come to be subprogramd in at least volt panaches the first is for situations in which scholarly persons study entirely on their confess the southward is for a set of skills which can be learned and utilize in self-directed breeding the third is for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional procreation the fourth is for the exercise of scholars responsibility for their own learnedness and the last is for the undecomposed of apprentices to determine the direction of their own schooling. (Benson & Voller, 1997 2) It is noteworthy that autonomy can be survey of in ground of a de parcelure from education as a social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending the fixion of experience and the usages of the participants in the increment process. self-directed wording acquirement counters the learners to be responsible for their development, including deciding their skill objective, choosing their learn materials, monitor and ad only ifing their learning process and evaluating their learning results. There is broad arranging in the theoretical literature that learner autonomy grows push through of the man-to-man learners acceptance of responsibility for his or her own learning (e.g., H olec, 1981Little, 1991). This means that learner autonomy is a matter of explicit or conscious intentionwe cannot accept responsibility for our own learning unless we down some idea of what, why,and how we ar trying to learn. The learner must take at least some of the initiatives that put up shape and direction to the learning process, and must shargon in monitoring maturate and evaluating the extent to which learning tar conducts atomic deem 18 achieved.The pedagogical justification for wanting to foster the development of learner autonomy rests on the claim that in formal educational con textual matters, reflexion and self-aw atomic number 18ness produce go learning. The supreme learner shows initiative regarding learning, and sh atomic number 18s in monitoring progress and evaluating the extent to which learning is achieved (Schunk, 2005).The ideas that cluster around the concept of learner autonomy have also been promoted under banners such as, humanistic phraseology direction, collaborative learning, experiential learning, and the learning-centered classroom. We prefer the term Learner autonomy because it implies a holistic view of the learner as an individual. This seems to us most-valuable for cardinal reasons. First, it reminds us that learners bring to the classroom a private history and individual(prenominal) holds that may have little in common with the faux background and implied take on which the curriculum is based.Second, it reminds us that the ultimate footstep of mastery in second or foreign manner of speaking learning is the extent to which the target language becomes a fully integrated part of the learners identity. In conlusion,some of the most well pick outn definitions in present literature ar Autonomy is the ability to take charge of ones own learning (Henri Holec,1981) Autonomy is essentially a matter of the learners psychological relation to the process and content of learning (David Little,1991) Autonomy is a s ituation in which the learner is entirely responsible for all the decisions worryed with his or her learning and the implementation of those decisions. (Leslie Dickinson,1987) Autonomy is a recognition of the rights of learners within educational systems. (Benson,2001)2.1.2 Theoretical Background of Learner AutonomyAutonomy is not developed by single, clearly defined theories or methods, its evolution has reflected a more general trend in language teaching however, its independence from specific theories does not mean that system is not relevant. In fact, galore(postnominal) researchers in the literature seek justifications of learner autonomy from a wide pastiche of philosophical, psychological, and political sources. And some approaches to educational psychology humanism, constructivism had a profound pretend on the advocacy of free learning. A review of the two approaches to language education, especially to second language learning and teaching will be offered.2.1.2.1 C onstructivismConstructivism is one of the hottest topics in educational psychology. Constructivism is a raw(a) educational psychology school which is influenced by Piagets cognitive developmental psychology and Vygotskys social interactionism. Constructivism is described as a learning theory based on au thentic and real-world situations. Students internalize and construct new knowledge based on bypast experiences. The constructivism theory is disciple-centered and encourages higher(prenominal) aim processing skills to apply their working knowledge. In other words, everyone makes their own sense impression impression of the world and the experiences that surround them. In this way the learner is b joltingt into primaeval focus in learning theory(Williams M.&Burden R.L., 19972). The educational impact of constructivism is positive(p), in that instruction is based on learners front knowledge, allowing them to make significant connections and solve complex problems.Vygotskys point of view was that acquisition and participation were synergistic strategies in learning situations. Aspects of participation refer teaching in contexts that could be meaty to students based on their personal and social history, negotiating, class discussions, small group collaborative learning with projects and lying-ins, and valuing meaningful activity over set answers. Social Constructivism emphasizes that learning takes place with interactions with other students, teachers, and the world-at-large. (Vygotsky,1978) In terms of process of learning, acquiring and constructing new knowledge, the student plays an expeditious role. The student brings past experiences and prior knowledge to the classroom and uses these to actively connect with new ideas or problems that are presented. Knowing is being able to internalize the material, connecting it with things you already know.Students use higher aim processing skills, such as evaluating, analyzing and synthesis to apply newl y constructed knowledge to problems or situations. consort to the theory of constructivism, student responsibility is greater, as they dis expand how new knowledge connects with prior knowledge. The learner continuously asks questions and guides their own learning process. Students learn that there is not just one way to solve problems, but quite multiple ways to fingering answers. Typical classroom instruction, consistent with the constructivist learning theory may include problem-based approach to teaching, hands-on activities, including the use of manipulatives, experimentation, and simulations. The constructivist theory allows teachers to be creative and innovative with teaching.In brief, constructivism believes that learning is a process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their past knowledge. Constructivist learning theory advocates that learning is student-centered and instructed by teachers, which puts great emphasis on learners. Students are not passive receiver. Instead, they are active constructors. The learners select and convert culture, construct hypotheses and make decisions relying on a cognitive twist. Cognitive structure (i.e. schema, mental models) digests meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to go beyond the information have gotn.2.1.2.2 HumanismHumanism is a school of thought that believes human beings are different from other species and possess capacities that cannot be found in animals. Humanists, therefore, give primacy to the study of human needs and pertains. In humanistic view, the basic concern is the human potential growth and education is to erect actualization and give free harness to ones potential. Humanistic approaches emphasize the richness of the inner world of the learner and place the individuals thoughts, pure toneings, and emotions at the forefront of all human development(Williams,M.&Burden, R.L. 19974).These aspects of the learning process are often un justly neglected, yet they are vitally all-important(prenominal) if we are to pick up human learning in its totality. There are 5 basic objectives of the humanistic view of education the first is to promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system)the second is to develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective systems)the third is to develop creativity (divergent mentation aspect of cognition)the fourth is to arouse curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of instability or dissonance in any of the systems)the last is to cultivate an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system).2.1.3 Teachers Role in Autonomous LearningIn literature works there are many detailed descriptions of the teachers role in underdeveloped learner autonomy. gibe to Huttunen (1986), teachers should guide the learners in the process of their logical, psychological and ethical development towar ds autonomy. Their task is to enrich, balance, and clarify the learners experience and to serve up them to seek new experiences to structure and change experiences they need, and to find ways of associating the learners experiences with the various aspects of life in their culture, including its heritage Higgs (1988) stated that in the process of learners autonomous learning teachers should act as a manager who is available as a resource, will create learners a supportive and nonthreatening learning environment, can motivate learners to achieve their potential and can jockstrap learners to be aware of institutional requirements and expectations associated with the discipline in which they are learning according to Nunan (1993), teachers are readjusting their traditional roles and to the new ones.They become active participants, monitors, consultants and guides in the process of students language learning and help students to develop better learning strategies Hill (1994) suggest ed that since the decision to promote autonomy comes usually from the teacher, and the success of attempts to empower learners to become actively involved in their learning depends to a large extent on the teachers ability to delineate roles to Little (1999), he believes that teachers should be responsible for deciding whether and to what extent it is attainable for learners to determine their own learning objectiveness, select their own learning materials and pass judgment their own learning process HuaWeifen (2001)believes that language teachers should enable students to set learning objectives, pick out learning materials, develop the effective learning strategies, monitor their learning process and evaluate the learning results. She further proposes three roles of teachers in developing students independent learning a counselor who helps learners to develop their own learning ability instead of making decisions for them, a facilitator who provides psychological, social suppo rt and good support, and an information resource Xiao Fei (2002) feels that teachers must adjust their counselors, roles from the purveyors of language information to the organizers and managers of learning activities, and resource learning providing necessary help.Teacher serves as one of many resources for students, not necessarily the primordial source of information. The teacher engages students in experiences that quarrel preceding(prenominal) conceptions of their existing knowledge. The teacher uses student responses in the planning of next lessons and seeks elaboration of students initial responses. The teacher encourages questions and discussion among students by asking unrestricted questions. The teacher assists students to understand their own cognitive processes (metacognition) by using cognitive terminology such as classify, analyze, create, organize, hierarchy, etc. when framing tasks. The teacher encourages and accepts student autonomy and initiative by being wi lling to let go of classroom control The teacher makes available raw data and primary resources, along with manipulative and interactive physical materials. The teacher does not offprint knowing from the process of finding out.Nouns and verbs. The teacher facilitates clear communication from students in writing and verbal responses, from the point of view that communication comes from ones deep geomorphologic understanding of the concepts being communicated. When they can communicate clearly and meaningfully, they have in truth integrated the new learning. The teachers role is to anticipate and organise student misconceptions while presenting authentic questions and real-world problems or situations. The teacher does not provide clear answers on how to solve these problems or questions, but guides students to make sense of how things work according to what their past experiences are and how it applies to the new knowledge they are constructing.2.2 stimulus Theory2.2.1 Krashens th eory of language acquisitionDuring the belatedly 1970s Krashen put forward an account of SLA first known as the Monitor Model subsequently its main claim close the role of monitoring in language learning (Krashen, 1979). In the early eighties this was expanded into a broader-based model, described in Krashen (19811982), which consisted of basketball team linked hypotheses acquisition/learning, monitor, inhering prepare, excitant, and affective filter. The aspect of the model that became most developed was termed the enter supposition, the title of Krashens last major theoretical book (Krashen, 1985). In order to better understand the Input theory, it is necessary to have a general idea just about the five hypotheses as they are tight related to each other.They areThe Acquisition-Learning HypothesisThe Monitor Hypothesis The essential Order Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis. Krashen summarizes the five hypotheses with a single claim People ac quire second languages merely if they obtain fathomable infix and if their affective filters are low fair to middling to allow the excitant in In other words, clear introduce is the essential ingredient for second language acquisition. All other factors thought to encourage or cause second-language acquisition work whole when they reach to comprehensible input and/or a low affective filter. pic2.2.2 Input hypothesis in second language learningThe Input Hypothesis is Krashens attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashens explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input Hypothesis is only concerned with acquisition, not learning. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the natural order when he/she receives second language input that is one step beyond his/her current exhibit of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at stage i, then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs to level i+1. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some i+1input that is appropriate for his /her current stage of linguistic competence. The Input Hypothesis is simply stated Humans acquire language in only one wayby understanding messages or by receiving comprehensible input (Krashen, 19852). That is to say, language acquisition depends upon trying to comprehend what other pile are saying.Provided that the learner hears meaningful speech and endeavors to understand it, acquisition will occur (cited in Cook, 1993). The theory (Krashen 19811985 1989) also makes the chase claims, as Ellis (1994) has summarizedLearners progress along the natural order by understanding input that contains structures a little bit beyon d their current level of competence. Although comprehensible input is necessary for acquisition to take place, it is not sufficient, as learners also need to be affectively disposed to let in the input they comprehend. Input becomes comprehensible as a result of simplification and with the help of contextual and extralinguistic clues fine-tuning (i.e. ensuring that learners receive input rich in the specific linguistic piazza they are due to acquire next) is not necessary. Speaking is the result of acquisition, not its cause learner production does not contribute directly to acquisition.It is still that to be useful to the learner, the input must be neither overly difficult to understand nor too easy. This is conceptualized by Krashen in terms of the learners current level, called i, and the level that the learner will get to next, called i+1.For the learner to progress quite than remain static, the input has always to be slightly beyond the level at which he or she is completel y at home the gap between the learners i and the i+1that he or she needs is bridged by information drawn from the situation and from the learners previous experience. We also use context, our knowledge of the world, our extra-linguistic competence to help us understand (Krashen, 1982, 21).Krashen emphasizes that input does not need to be finely tuned in the sense that it is linguistically adjusted to contain i+1.It requires only rough tuning, which is automatic if the focus is on successful communication.2.2.3 The web-based meltimedia language input for autonomous learning Students need accessible materialscomprehensible input, the underlying assumption is that the learner needs help identifying the critical features in the wealth of the linguistic and nonlinguistic information they receive (Plass & Jones, 2005, p. 470). This means that the supports embedded in a multimedia system instructional approach should guide what students notice in a word, sentence, passage, or image. The a utonomous leaners need to be provided with more and up-to-date language input in as many ways as possible, such as vedio and audio materials downloaded from the internet. This strategy can also be accomplished done immediate and focused teacher feedback. When a teacher highlights portions of an assignment that require revisions, the students ability to evaluate and revise her work increases. These strategies help the learner understand task directions and focus on pertinent information to comprehend or revise.2.3 Web-Based Language Teaching and Learning2.3.1.The development of web-based language teaching and learning Web-based language learning is developed from Computer-Assisted Language Learning. It may be defined as the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning (Levy, 19971).As for teaching, the lecturer presents a language teaching plan in a logical order and learns whether the students responses are correct or not correct by compute rs. As for learning, the language learners use computers to monitor their own progress, and provide themselves with proper lessons, materials, etc. Ric expectants. J.C.(1998) also points out that CALL refers to the use of computer in the teaching and learning of second or foreign language. The CALL in the academic literature has been existed for about forty years. The subject is interdisciplinary by nature, and it has evolved out of previous efforts to find ways of using computer for teaching or for instructional intent across a wide variety of subjects areas, with the weight of knowledge and pretension of application in language learning ultimately resulting in a more specialized field of study (Levy, 1997).According to Warschauer and Healey (1998), CALL has see three stages in the last forty years behavioristicic, communicative and integrative. separately stage will be featured by its important projects and development despite the fact that there is in fact no open line amon g stages (Hu&Jiang, 20025 34-538). The first stage of CALL, Behavioristic Call, started from the 1950s and applied in 1960s and 1970s, was on the basis of the then dominant behaviorist theories of learning. Programs of this stage were repetitive language drills and can be concluded as drill and practice. unmatchable of the most complicated projects of this period is the PLATO (Programmed logical system/Learning for Automated Teaching Operations) system, which operates on its own special PLATO hard ware, including central computers and terminals.The vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations drills, and translation tests at various intervals (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers&Sussex, 1985)were included. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was replaced because of two important factors. First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been out of stage at both(prenominal) the theoretical and the pedagogical level. Secondly, the application of microcomputer provided a whole new range of chances. The stage was set for a new era of CALL-Communicative CALL. One of the main advocates of this new approach was John Underwood, who in 1984 proposed a serial of premises for Communicative CALL (Underwood, 198452). According to him, the Communicative CALL focuses more on using forms.The teacher uses the computer to teach grammar implicitly rather than explicitly allow and encourage students to utter naturally rather than just manipulate prefabricated language it does not assess everything the students do nor give them felicitous message, lights, or bells avoids telling students that they are incorrect and is flexible to a variety of student responses it uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen and will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well. Many types of CALL programs were developed and applied during this period. unifying computer ass isted language learning covers the more juvenile development of 1990s, and regular the multimedia computers and the Internet.This period was greatly influenced by the growth of constructivist approach, which believes that knowledge is not obtained through the transmission of teachers, but the meaning construction of learners themselves in a certain social and cultural context with the others, including their teachers and their peers, and also the use of resources. Furthermore, this approach emphasizes that learners are the necessary component of learning main luggage compartment in the cognitive process and the active constructor of knowledge meanings, and teachers take the roles as organizers, guiders and facilitators. Also, the importance of authentic learning environment and social interaction is emphasized. This phase is featured by the use of multimedia, hypermedia and interactive technologies to enhance comprehensive skills. 2.3.2 web-based language learning context and inp ut thoeryCompared with the traditional language teaching and learning context, web-based language learning would expose college students to greater meat of language information input. On the one hand, the colorful, multi-facet, and limitless information provided by the internet and computer programs attracts the learners attention. It could also make their side study much easier. It is obvious that, the multimedia, hypermedia and Internet enrich the information input and to a large extent promote the students curiosity, interest and motivation in English learning. On the other hand, the multi-facet or multi-channel information input may be in some way distract learners attention and make learners feel at a loss in their autonomous learning after class, thus weaken the learners productivity of English language. Therefore, to help learners to wisely choose the useful information to develop their own autonomous language learning models become the teachers focuses.2.4 Assessment in aut onomou learningIn a recent report, Dam and Legenhausen (1999 90) claim that learners ability to reflect critically on their learning is a measure of the effectiveness of the learning environment. They use the term rating to refer to the metacognitive activity of reviewing past and future learning experiences in order to enhance learning, and claim that In an autonomous classroom . . . evaluation is viewed as the personal identification number of a good learning/teaching cycle . . . Evaluation has a retrospective and prospective function, in which the learning experiences of the past are reflected upon and change into plans for future action. The potential for learner autonomy increases as an individuals learning awareness grows. Therefore activities which prompt learners to reflect on their learning aim to enhance learners insight into their learning processes. Assessments for autonomous learners may cover a wide area of knowledge,for example, reading an authentic language text o r a small, tightly focused area ,for example, questions at the end of a worksheet on a specific grammar point. Assessments may serve one or more of a number of purposes, such as boldness building, demonstrating learning gain, or motivation, and they may be constructed in a number of ways, for example, by the teacher, by the learner, collaboratively or as a portfolio (Gardner and Miller, 1999).Assessments with any combine of the above criteria can be self-assessments because this term refers simply to the mode of administration, i.e., assessments which are self-administered. It is reasonable to assume that autonomous learners would benefit from feedback on chievements in their learning through engaging in some kind of assessment procedure. The individualize nature of autonomous learning makes large-scale, institutionalised assessments problematic although an autonomous learner may make the decision to include these as part of a personalised assessment regime. Self-assessment seems to accommodate itself much more easily to the different and flexible requirements of an autonomous learner. Indeed, it has been argued that self-assessment is an integral part of autonomous learning (Holec, 1981 Tudor, 1996 Thomson, 1996 Gardner and Miller, 1999) and that all learners engage in it (Holec, 1985) although not necessarily knowingly (Thomson, 1996). Dickinson (1987) argues that self-evaluation of performance is an important skill for all language learners but of particular importance to autonomous language learners. Thomson (1996) implemented a self-assessment project as a way of getting learners involved in self-directed learning.The effectiveness of self-assessment is detailed by Nunan (1996 21), who states that, Autonomy is enhanced when learners are encouraged to self-monitor and self-assess. An important aspect of the monitoring process for learners is simply knowing how they are doing in their learning. They want to know if they are becoming more proficient as u sers of the target language. Brindley (1989 60) says that self-assessment has five purposes. Firstly, learners have greater responsibility for assessment of their proficiency and progress second it lets them diagnose their strong and weak areas thirdly it lets them compare their present level with the level they wish to obtain fourthly it helps them become more do and lastly it helps them to develop their own criteria for monitoring their progress.However, Brindley (1989 61) also points out that there are objections to self-assessment. The idea that learners can be reliable judges of their own performance is by no means universally accepted.Therefore self-assessment is a skill, that has to be learned. Brindley (1989 83) divides this learning into technical training, and psychological training. Technical training is to help the students judge their own performance, and consists of self-monitoring of language use, development of criteria, definition of objectives, and knowledge about language learning. Self-assessments help learners monitor their level of success in specific learning tasks. A series of self-assessments will contribute to monitoring progress towards specific learning objectives.They can also have a motivational effect. Success breeds confidence. Self-assessment does not always demonstrate success but where it does, even on a small scale, learners motivation will be enhanced. Teachers also need to know how well learners are doing. They have a sea captain responsibility to help learners learn. Gardner and Miller (1999 210) suggest the assessment should contain the following pieces of information the purpose of the assessment, the benefit to the learner, the procedure for conducting the assessment, the procedure for marking the assessment, a suggested marking scale, a choice of follow up actions based on the score achieved.